CHAPTER THIRTY EUROPEAN AND AMERICAN ART, 1715–1840
1. In England, what style experienced a revival accompanied by Neoclassicism?
A. Gothic
B. Roman
C. Romanesque
D. Byzantine
Answer: A
Learning Objective: 30.b Interpret the meaning of eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century European and American works of art based on their themes, subjects, and symbols.
Topic: The Gothic Revival in Architecture and Design
Difficulty Level: Easy
Skill Level: Remember the Facts
2. What site became a venerated pilgrimage center in Mexico after Juan Diego claimed that he had seen the Virgin Mary there?
A. Guadalupe
B. Madrid
C. Segovia
D. Toledo
Answer: A
Learning Objective: 30.c Relate eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century European and American art and artists to their cultural, economic, and political contexts.
Topic: The Art of the Americas under Spain
Difficulty Level: Easy
Skill Level: Remember the Facts
3. David’s Death of Marat (Fig. 30-39) echoes the pose of Christ in a sculpture by
A. Reynolds.
B. Boucher.
C. Carriera.
D. Michelangelo.
Answer: D
Learning Objective: 30.c Relate eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century European and American art and artists to their cultural, economic, and political contexts.
Topic: Later Eighteenth-Century Art in France, Painting
Difficulty Level: Easy
Skill Level: Remember the Facts
4. What is the name for intimate, fashionable, and intellectual gatherings hosted by accomplished, educated Frenchwomen of the upper class?
A. satires
B. tours
C. salons
D. academies
Answer: C
Learning Objective: 30.d Apply the vocabulary and concepts relevant to eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century European and American art, artists, and art history.
Topic: Rococo Salons
Difficulty Level: Moderate
Skill Level: Understand the Concepts
5. Rosalba Carriera specialized in painting portraits with
A. ink.
B. acrylic.
C. pastels.
D. wood.
Answer: C
Learning Objective: 30.a Identify the visual hallmarks of eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century European and American art for formal, technical, and expressive qualities.
Topic: Grand Tour Portraits and Views
Difficulty Level: Easy
Skill Level: Remember the Facts
6. In the eighteenth century, the Industrial Revolution replaced the land-based power of the aristocracy with
A. the financial power of capitalists.
B. the religious power of the Church.
C. the political power of the laity.
D. the social power of philosophers
Answer: A
Learning Objective: 30.c Relate eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century European and American art and artists to their cultural, economic, and political contexts.
Topic: Industrial, Intellectual, and Political Revolutions
Difficulty Level: Easy
Skill Level: Remember the Facts
7. What were typical architectural elements in French Rococo salon design of the 1730s?
A. cantilevers
B. arabesques
C. iron rods
D. striations
Answer: B
Learning Objective: 30.a Identify the visual hallmarks of eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century European and American art for formal, technical, and expressive qualities.
Topic: Rococo Salons
Difficulty Level: Moderate
Skill Level: Understand the Concepts
8. What does Fragonard’s The Swing (Fig. 30-6), which was commissioned by an unknown patron, suggest about the artist’s aristocratic clientele?
A. devout religious practice
B. erotic interests
C. intellectual pursuits
D. scientific curiosity
Answer: B
Learning Objective: 30.d Apply the vocabulary and concepts relevant to eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century European and American art, artists, and art history.
Topic: Rococo, Painting
Difficulty Level: Difficult
Skill Level: Apply What You Know and Analyze It
9. Swiss artist John Henry Fuseli specialized in depicting dramatic subjects drawn from literary sources, including
A. the Bible
B. Erasmus
C. Chaucer
D. Shakespeare
Answer: D
Learning Objective: 30.d Apply the vocabulary and concepts relevant to eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century European and American art, artists, and art history.
Topic: Trends in British Painting
Difficulty Level: Easy
Skill Level: Remember the Facts
10. Which artist was admired by Denis Diderot, an Enlightenment philosopher who thought art should inspire refined manners?
A. Fragonard
B. Blake
C. Boucher
D. Chardin
Answer: D
Learning Objective: 30.c Relate eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century European and American art and artists to their cultural, economic, and political contexts.
Topic: Later Eighteenth-Century Art in France, Painting
Difficulty Level: Moderate
Skill Level: Understand the Concepts
11. In Angelika Kauffman’s Cornelia Pointing to Her Children as Her Treasures (Fig. 30-28), how does the mother depict Classical virtues?
A. She expresses interest in material wealth.
B. She shows frustration with her children.
C. She gestures to the monumental architecture.
D. She stands gracefully in a tranquil setting.
Answer: D
Learning Objective: 30.e Interpret a work of eighteenth- or early nineteenth-century European or American art using appropriate art historical methods of observation, comparison, and inductive reasoning.
Topic: Trends in British Painting
Difficulty Level: Difficult
Skill Level: Apply What You Know and Analyze It
12. What about Goya’s Third of May, 1808 (Fig. 30-45) epitomizes Romanticism in art?
A. It is not factual.
B. It glorifies the victors.
C. It is an image of terror.
D. It is a mythological subject.
Answer: C
Learning Objective: 30.b Interpret the meaning of eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century European and American works of art based on their themes, subjects, and symbols.
Topic: Goya
Difficulty Level: Moderate
Skill Level: Understand the Concepts
13. How did French artist Jacques-Louis David incorporate ideas of Grand Manner painting into his depiction of Napoleon Crossing the Saint Bernard (Fig. 30-49)?
A. He represented subjects in Classical settings and costumes.
B. He used artistic license to suggest heroic qualities.
C. He adhered to models for history painting established in England.
D. He showed the figure’s control over the environment.
Answer: B
Learning Objective: 30.f Select visual and textual evidence in various media to support an argument or an interpretation of a work of eighteenth- or early nineteenth-century European and American art.
Topic: Developments in France
Difficulty Level: Difficult
Skill Level: Apply What You Know and Analyze It
14. A common thread that connected Romantic artists was
A. the belief in the necessity of the Grand Tour.
B. a simplified composition and individual forms.
C. a focus on rational subjects.
D. an emphasis on expressiveness.
Answer: D
Learning Objective: 30.e Interpret a work of eighteenth- or early nineteenth-century European or American art using appropriate art historical methods of observation, comparison, and inductive reasoning.
Topic: Romantic Landscape Painting
Difficulty Level: Difficult
Skill Level: Apply What You Know and Analyze It
15. How did Benjamin Latrobe incorporate new symbolic forms in his design for the U.S. Capitol building?
A. an asymmetrical floor plan
B. Native American patterns on walls
C. representations of indigenous plants on columns
D. brick made from local clay
Answer: C
Learning Objective: 30.b Interpret the meaning of eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century European and American works of art based on their themes, subjects, and symbols.
Topic: British and American Architecture
Difficulty Level: Moderate
Skill Level: Understand the Concepts
16. What about Ingres’s work in the early nineteenth century demonstrates the ongoing interest in Neoclassicism?
A. his erotic or aristocratic subject matter
B. his attention to color and surface textures
C. his academic line and formal structure
D. his emphasis on moral virtue and reason
Answer: C
Learning Objective: 30.e Interpret a work of eighteenth- or early nineteenth-century European or American art using appropriate art historical methods of observation, comparison, and inductive reasoning.
Topic: Developments in France
Difficulty Level: Moderate
Skill Level: Understand the Concepts
17. How do the landscape paintings of John Constable evoke themes of Romanticism in art?
A. the heightened drama of the scene
B. the nostalgic emphasis on nature as idyllic
C. the reference to the philosophical “sublime”
D. the inclusion of exotic details
Answer: B
Learning Objective: 30.f Select visual and textual evidence in various media to support an argument or an interpretation of a work of eighteenth- or early nineteenth-century European and American art.
Topic: Romantic Landscape Painting
Difficulty Level: Difficult
Skill Level: Apply What You Know and Analyze It
18. Thomas Gainsborough’s style of portraiture reflects the influence of
A. Flemish artists, such as Van Dyck.
B. Reynold’s concept of the Grand Manner.
C. realism found in Dutch genre painting.
D. Romantic ideas about nature.
Answer: A
Learning Objective: 30.f Select visual and textual evidence in various media to support an argument or an interpretation of a work of eighteenth- or early nineteenth-century European and American art.
Topic: Trends in British Painting
Difficulty Level: Moderate
Skill Level: Understand the Concepts
19. What is demonstrated in Théodore Géricault’s The Raft of the Medusa (Fig. 30-51)?
A. principles of the Grand Manner
B. the emphasis on reason
C. the religious potential of art
D. influences from the Americas
Answer: A
Learning Objective: 30.f Select visual and textual evidence in various media to support an argument or an interpretation of a work of eighteenth- or early nineteenth-century European and American art.
Topic: Developments in France
Difficulty Level: Moderate
Skill Level: Understand the Concepts
20. Cardinal Albani built the Villa Albani to
A. reflect on Enlightenment ideals.
B. display his vast collection of antique artifacts.
C. promote the Industrial Revolution.
D. house royal travelers from Northern Europe.
Answer: B
Learning Objective: 30.d Apply the vocabulary and concepts relevant to eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century European and American art, artists, and art history.
Topic: Neoclassicism in Rome
Difficulty Level: Easy
Skill Level: Remember the Facts
21. Enlightenment thinking is marked by the conviction that.
A. all developments should have church support.
B. the aristocracy is best able to rule.
C. all should have equal rights.
D. women should have the right to vote.
Answer: C
Learning Objective: 30.b Interpret the meaning of eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century European and American works of art based on their themes, subjects, and symbols.
Topic: Industrial, Intellectual, and Political Revolutions
Difficulty Level: Moderate
Skill Level: Understand the Concepts
22. Who were really only honorary members of the academies?
A. sculptors
B. foreigners
C. women
D. architects
Answer: C
Learning Objective: 30.c Relate eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century European and American art and artists to their cultural, economic, and political contexts.
Topic: Trends in British Painting
Difficulty Level: Easy
Skill Level: Remember the Facts
23. Who painted a series of entertaining scenes of scientific experiments?
A. Richard Boyle
B. Joseph Wright of Derby
C. Thomas Cole
D. Joseph Mallord William Turner
Answer: B
Learning Objective: 30.c Relate eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century European and American art and artists to their cultural, economic, and political contexts.
Topic: Trends in British Painting
Difficulty Level: Moderate
Skill Level: Understand the Concepts
24. What did Joseph Mallord William Turner try to capture with a mixture of fascination and fear?
A. vedute
B. salons
C. sublime
D. fête galante
Answer: C
Learning Objective: 30.b Interpret the meaning of eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century European and American works of art based on their themes, subjects, and symbols.
Topic: Romantic Landscape Painting
Difficulty Level: Easy
Skill Level: Remember the Facts
25. In 1779, what material was used in the Severn River Bridge (Fig. 30-22), which replaced the heavy, hand-cut stone voussoirs of earlier bridges?
A. iron struts
B. Classical keystones
C. decorative crenellations
D. wooden arches
Answer: A
Learning Objective: 30.a Identify the visual hallmarks of eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century European and American art for formal, technical, and expressive qualities.
Topic: Iron as a Building Material
Difficulty Level: Easy
Skill Level: Remember the Facts
Short Answer
1. What is the derivation of the word Rococo?
Answer: The term combines the Italian word barocco (an irregularly shaped pearl, possibly the source of the word baroque) and the French rocaille (a popular form of garden or interior ornamentation using shells and pebbles) to describe the refined and fanciful style that became fashionable in parts of Europe during the eighteenth century.
Learning Objective: 30.d Apply the vocabulary and concepts relevant to eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century European and American art, artists, and art history.
Topic: Rococo
Difficulty Level: Moderate
Skill Level: Understand the Concepts
2. What defines the Rococo style? Give an example.
Answer: The style is defined by delicate, curving forms, pastel colors, elegantly dressed figures, atmospheric lighting, sensual and luxurious settings, and elements that suggest transience. The sculpture The Invention of the Balloon (Fig. 30-7) exemplifies the Rococo period. The figures are curving around the base and the balloon and belching clouds of smoke. The work is playful and erotic.
Learning Objective: 30.c Relate eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century European and American art and artists to their cultural, economic, and political contexts.
Topic: Rococo, Sculpture and Architecture
Difficulty Level: Difficult
Skill Level: Apply What You Know and Analyze It
3. Why did Diderot encourage artists to work for the common good?
Answer: He began to write reviews of the official Salon for a newsletter for wealthy subscribers; he is generally considered to be the founder of modern art criticism. Diderot believed that art should be moralizing, that it should promote virtuous behavior and inspire refined manners, unlike the Rococo artists.
Learning Objective: 30.d Apply the vocabulary and concepts relevant to eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century European and American art, artists, and art history.
Topic: Later Eighteenth-Century Art in France, Painting
Difficulty Level: Moderate
Skill Level: Understand the Concepts
4. How did Joseph Wright of Derby glorify science?
Answer: Joseph Wright of Derby created a dramatic and suspenseful scene in An Experiment on a Bird in the Air-Pump (Fig. 30-26) to glorify science. The light was created from a single source; the moon glistens in the background through the window. The artist captured the moment right before allowing air back into the glass to intensify the wonder of science.
Learning Objective: 30.f Select visual and textual evidence in various media to support an argument or an interpretation of a work of eighteenth- or early nineteenth-century European and American art.
Topic: Trends in British Painting
Difficulty Level: Difficult
Skill Level: Apply What You Know and Analyze It
5. What was the role of art academies in the eighteenth century, and how did they influence artistic development of the period?
Answer: Academies were institutions that were set up with the goal of training artists and setting standards of style and taste. In Paris, they were the only public art exhibitions of importance, so they were extremely important in shaping public response. They also rewarded artists who were well received.
Learning Objective: 30.c Relate eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century European and American art and artists to their cultural, economic, and political contexts.
Topic: Trends in British Painting
Difficulty Level: Moderate
Skill Level: Understand the Concepts
6. How did Neoclassical artists rebel against Rococo art?
Answer: Neoclassical artists thought Rococo art was decadent and shallow. They looked to Roman ideas of civic virtue and patriotism to create forms and content. They wanted to represent the expression of the state and political stability.
Learning Objective: 30.c Relate eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century European and American art and artists to their cultural, economic, and political contexts.
Topic: Neoclassicism and Early Romanticism in Britain
Difficulty Level: Difficult
Skill Level: Apply What You Know and Analyze It
7. How did artists of the nineteenth century use landscape painting to convey ideas associated with Romanticism?
Answer: Romantics saw nature as ever changing, unpredictable, and uncontrollable, and they saw in it an analogy to equally changeable human emotions. They found nature awesome, fascinating, powerful, domestic, and delightful, and landscape painting became an important visual theme.
Learning Objective: 30.d Apply the vocabulary and concepts relevant to eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century European and American art, artists, and art history.
Topic: Romantic Landscape Painting
Difficulty Level: Moderate
Skill Level: Understand the Concepts
8. How did art develop in Mesoamerica in the eighteenth century?
Answer: Artists combined indigenous traditions of visual representation with Christian imagery. The cross and crucifix were images that were particularly successful because of their connection to sacrifice and blood-letting, which was reminiscent of Aztec rituals.
Learning Objective: 30.c Relate eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century European and American art and artists to their cultural, economic, and political contexts.
Topic: The Art of the Americas under Spain
Difficulty Level: Difficult
Skill Level: Apply What You Know and Analyze It
9. What was the impact of lithography?
Answer: Using lithography, a printmaking process, artists could produce unlimited prints with brilliant color and detailed line. They could use lithography to produce their own prints without the cumbersome, expensive, and time-consuming intermediary of the engraver. The prints were affordable and could be found in every house, owned by people at every level of society.
Learning Objective: 30.a Identify the visual hallmarks of eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century European and American art for formal, technical, and expressive qualities.
Topic: Developments in France
Difficulty Level: Moderate
Skill Level: Understand the Concepts
10. What are the sources for Thomas Jefferson’s Monticello (Fig. 30-70)?
Answer: In the first phase of construction, the English Palladian style was used. The second building campaign enlarged the house and redesigned the exterior so that its two stories appeared as one large story in the manner fashionable in Paris. The Neoclassical style, as well as architectural sources from the worlds of ancient Greece and Rome, were very influential.
Learning Objective: 30.b Interpret the meaning of eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century European and American works of art based on their themes, subjects, and symbols.
Topic: British and American Architecture
Difficulty Level: Moderate
Skill Level: Understand the Concepts
Essay
1. What are the main features of the Rococo style, as seen in Jean-Antoine Watteau’s The Signboard of Gersaint (Fig. 30-3)?
Answer:
1. The signboard was painted for an art dealer and showed the shop’s interior filled with paintings done in the style of the Venetian and Netherlandish schools that Watteau admired.
2. The elegant forms of the men and women were shown in flowing satin gowns, large wigs, and posh suits worn by the upper class.
3. Elements in the painting alluded to the idea of transience, such as the straw, the mirror, and clock, all popular themes of Rococo painting.
4. The dominant colors were pastels, and the light and airy environment of the shop was in line for the period.
Learning Objective: 30.f Select visual and textual evidence in various media to support an argument or an interpretation of a work of eighteenth- or early nineteenth-century European and American art.
Topic: Rococo, Painting
Difficulty Level: Difficult
Skill Level: Apply What You Know and Analyze It
2. How were Enlightenment ideas reflected in art of the eighteenth century? Choose examples that demonstrate the diverse range of styles used to express these interests.
Answer:
1. The Enlightenment influenced artists in style, composition, and content, emphasizing rational thought and civic duties over emotion and superstition. Josiah Wedgwood was influenced by Enlightenment ideas in the production of pottery. His ceramics drew on Classical sources for form, composition, and content. He was socially conscious and established a village for his employees and showed concern for their well-being.
2. As seen in Anton Raphael Mengs’s Parnassus (Fig. 30-13), the composition is balanced and emphasized the cultivation of Classical arts.
3. David’s Oath of the Horatii (Fig. 30-38) encouraged civic duty over personal interests, seen by the brothers swearing to protect the state, which is symbolized by their father.
4. Houdon’s sculpture George Washington (Fig. 30-42) alludes to Cincinnatus, a Roman soldier who exemplified heroism, duty, and humility.
Learning Objective: 30.c Relate eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century European and American art and artists to their cultural, economic, and political contexts.
Topic: Neoclassicism in Rome; The Classical Revival in Architecture and Design; Later Eighteenth-Century Art in France, Painting; Later Eighteenth-Century Art in France, Sculpture
Difficulty Level: Difficult
Skill Level: Apply What You Know and Analyze It
3. Neoclassicism and Romanticism are usually considered to have opposing styles. Write an essay offering examples that demonstrate the overlapping aspects of the visual characteristics, thematic interests, and cultural significance of both styles.
Answer:
1. Benjamin West created a style that deviated from the Neoclassical style, beginning the Romantic style with The Death of General Wolfe (Fig. 30-29). It glorifies the fallen hero but emphasizes the drama of the scene through light, exaggerated poses, and atmospheric background.
2. Goya created prints such as The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters (Fig. 30-43) to encourage Neoclassical ideas of rational thought using an asymmetrical composition with strong contrast that exemplified the Romantic movement.
3. Ingres combined the idea of a Neoclassical nude with the exaggerated features and erotic nature of the Romantic style in Large Odalisque (Fig. 30-57).
4. Cole combined the styles by dividing the composition into two equal parts in The Oxbow (Fig. 30-64). On the left, the power of nature and the unknown are dark and mysterious, while the scene on the right shows a tamed landscape that is orderly and functional.
Learning Objective: 30.e Interpret a work of eighteenth- or early nineteenth-century European or American art using appropriate art historical methods of observation, comparison, and inductive reasoning.
Topic: Trends in British Painting; Goya; Romantic Landscape Painting
Difficulty Level: Difficult
Skill Level: Apply What You Know and Analyze It
4. How did Sir Joshua Reynolds approach painting? Discuss his philosophies as they appear in Lady Sarah Bunbury Sacrificing to the Graces (Fig. 30-24).
Answer:
1. Reynolds argued that artists should follow rules derived from studying the great masters of the past, especially those who worked in the Classical tradition.
2. The large scale of the canvas suggested that it was a history painting, and its details evoke a Classical setting.
3. In the painting, Lady Sarah Bunbury was dressed in robes of a Roman priestess seen making a sacrifice to the Three Graces, the personifications of female beauty.
4. The architectural details showed an interest in Classical architecture, and these details and the balanced composition were hallmarks of the Neoclassical movement.
Learning Objective: 30.f Select visual and textual evidence in various media to support an argument or an interpretation of a work of eighteenth- or early nineteenth-century European and American art.
Topic: Trends in British Painting
Difficulty Level: Moderate
Skill Level: Understand the Concepts
5. How did John Singleton Copley’s Watson and the Shark (Fig. 30-32) exemplify the Romantic movement?
Answer:
1. In the foreground, the ferocious shark lunges toward the helpless, naked Watson, who seems less interested in being rescued than in stretching dramatically toward the light.
2. Two men on the boat reach toward Watson while another lunges forward with a harpoon to attack the predator, creating strong diagonals and a dynamic composition.
3. The shark wraps around the small boat and opens its mouth to heighten the viewer’s response to the power of nature. The animal seems incredibly large in comparison to Watson.
4. The environment seems realistic, yet clouded in a hazy light, creating an atmospheric quality.
Learning Objective: 30.f Select visual and textual evidence in various media to support an argument or an interpretation of a work of eighteenth- or early nineteenth-century European and American art.
Topic: Trends in British Painting
Difficulty Level: Difficult
Skill Level: Apply What You Know and Analyze It
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